The first description of patients with clustering of various metabolic abnormalities was as early as 1923 but it was more than five decades later, in 1988, that Reaven coined the term 'syndrome X' for this entity. The last two decades have brought forth a number of definitions and criteria to identify this condition. Various studies have demonstrated disparities in these definitions and a few researchers have questioned the utility of these criteria and even the existence of such a syndrome. A few important definitions are reviewed in this paper and, at the end, a simplified clinical definition is given and a simple parameter - lipid accumulation product - is been described that can be used to identify this condition.

The global prevalence of overweight and obesity in children and adolescents has increased substantially over the past several decades. These trends are also visible in developing economies like India. Childhood obesity impacts all the major organ systems of the body and is well known to result in significant morbidity and mortality. Obesity in childhood and adolescence is associated with established risk factors for cardiovascular diseases and accelerated atherosclerotic processes, including elevated blood pressure (BP), atherogenic dyslipidemia, atherosclerosis, metabolic syndrome, type II diabetes mellitus, cardiac structural and functional changes and obstructive sleep apnea. Probable mechanisms of obesity-related hypertension include insulin resistance, sodium retention, increased sympathetic nervous system activity, activation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system and altered vascular function. Adiposity promotes cardiovascular risk clustering during childhood and adolescence. Insulin resistance has a strong association with childhood obesity. A variety of proinflammatory mediators that are associated with cardiometabolic dysfunction are also known to be influenced by obesity levels. Obesity in early life promotes atherosclerotic disease in vascular structures such as the aorta and the coronary arteries. Childhood and adolescent adiposity has strong influences on the structure and function of the heart, predominantly of the left ventricle. Obesity compromises pulmonary function and increases the risk of sleep-disordered breathing and obstructive sleep apnea. Neglecting childhood and adolescent obesity will compromise the cardiovascular health of the pediatric population and is likely to result in a serious public health crisis in future.

Metabolic syndrome is a complex disorder caused by a cluster of interrelated factors that increases the risk of cardiovascular diseases and type 2 diabetes. Obesity is the main precursor for metabolic syndrome that can be targeted in developing various therapies. With this view, several physical, psychological, pharmaceutical and dietary therapies have been proposed for the management of obesity. However, dietary strategies found more appropriate without any adverse health effects. Application of probiotics and prebiotics as biotherapeutics is the new emerging area in developing dietary strategies and many people are interested in learning the facts behind these health claims. Recent studies established the role of probiotics and prebiotics in weight management with possible mechanisms of improved microbial balance, decreased food intake, decreased abdominal adiposity and increased mucosal integrity with decreased inflammatory tone. Hence, the above "Pharmaco-nutritional" approach has been selected and extensively reviewed to gain thorough knowledge on putative mechanisms of probiotic and prebiotic action in order to develop dietary strategies for the management of metabolic syndrome.

Obesity is a major public health problem and is implicated in the rising prevalence of cardiac disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus in India. Management of an obese patient includes therapeutic lifestyle changes of increasing physical activity and reducing calorie intake. This combination can result in about a 10% loss of initial body weight. To reinforce this intervention, behavioral therapy needs to be incorporated into the overall intervention under the belief that obesity is a result of maladaptive eating behaviors and exercise patterns. This review explains the principles of behavioral therapy, including the underlying assumptions and characteristics. The common components of behavioral therapy for obesity are explained. The different settings where behavioral therapy can be administered are mentioned. The review focuses on how behavioral therapy can be incorporated in the routine clinical management of obesity by primary and secondary care physicians who encounter obese patients.

Over the last few decades certain demographic changes have been observed worldwide, which have led to an increase in the prevalence of chronic non-communicable diseases. Type 2 diabetes mellitus and associated cardiovascular disease are major contributors to this disease burden leading to rising morbidity and mortality. It is worrisome to see that type 2 diabetes with its micro- and macrovascular complications is occurring in younger populations where it was hitherto unseen. Prevention appears to be an important strategy to reduce the burden of disease. Along with inculcating healthy lifestyle habits across populations, it may be suitable to use preventive pharmacotherapy in those with pre-diabetes and / or other risk factors like obesity, hypertension, and on the like. Metformin, alpha glucosidase inhibitors like acarbose, miglitol, and voglibose, and pioglitazone have all been used with success. The issues of compliance and adverse effects during long-term use have tempered the use of these drugs. The best approach would be to motivate the patient for effective lifestyle changes, and pharmacological management if the lifestyle changes are not successful in achieving their goals.

South Asia is home to one of the largest population of people with metabolic syndrome (MetS). The prevalence of MetS in South Asians varies according to region, extent of urbanization, lifestyle patterns, and socioeconomic/cultural factors. Recent data show that about one-third of the urban population in large cities in India has the MetS. All classical risk factors comprising the MetS are prevalent in Asian Indians residing in India. The higher risk in this ethnic population necessitated a lowering of the cut-off values of the risk factors to identify and intervene for the MetS to prevent diabetes and cardiovascular disease. Some pharmacological and nonpharmacological interventions are underway in MetS to assess the efficacy in preventing the diabetes and cardiovascular disease in this ethnic population.

Metabolic syndrome is a clustering of several cardiovascular risk factors. Contrary to earlier thoughts, metabolic syndrome is no longer rare in Africa. The prevalence is increasing, and it tends to increase with age. This increase in the prevalence of metabolic syndrome in the continent is thought to be due to departure from traditional African to western lifestyles. In Africa, it is not limited to adults but is also becoming common among the young ones. Obesity and dyslipidemia seem to be the most common occurring components. While obesity appears more common in females, hypertension tends to be more predominant in males. Insulin resistance has remained the key underlying pathophysiology. Though pharmacologic agents are available to treat the different components of the syndrome, prevention is still possible by reverting back to the traditional African way of life.

Metabolic syndrome (MS) is a combination of medical disorders that, in concert, increase the risk of developing cardiovascular disease and diabetes. It affects about one in four people in the Middle East, and prevalence increases with age. The aim of current review is to discuss the prevalence of MS and its component in different regions in the Middle East. The recorded high prevalence of the MS and its key cardiovascular risk factors (15-60%) among Middle East population mandates the need for a national and international prevention programs to combat obesity, diabetes, hypertension, dyslipidemia, smoking and related comorbidities. Consideration of early prevention and control is of utmost importance.

Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a cluster of metabolic abnormalities including abdominal obesity, impaired fasting glucose, hypertension and dyslipidemia. It seems to affect about one-fourth to one-fifth of the Mediterranean population, and its prevalence increases with age, being similar for both sexes and depending on the region and the definition used, with the National Cholesterol Education Program-Adult Treatment Panel-III (NCEP-ATPIII) definition being the most effective in the identification of glucose intolerance and cardiovascular risk. Except for these, MetS is associated with fatty liver disease, some forms of cancer, hypogonadism, and vascular dementia. The Mediterranean diet seems to be an ideal diet in patients with MetS, being rich in fibre, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, and low in animal protein; and decreases the prevalence of MetS and cardiovascular disease risk. Except for weight loss, multifactorial intervention including insulin resistance reduction and normoglycemia, management of dyslipidemia, optimizing blood pressure and administration of low-dose aspirin for patients at high or moderately high cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk are additional targets. The present review provides current understanding about MetS in the Mediterranean region, focusing on its prevalence, clinical significance, and therapeutic strategy.

Tobacco is a leading contributor to morbidity and mortality globally. Metabolic syndrome is a constellation of abdominal obesity, atherogenic dyslipidemia, raised blood pressure, insulin resistance (with and without glucose intolerance), pro-inflammatory state, and pro-thrombotic state. Tobacco use is associated with various core components of metabolic syndrome. It has been found to play a causal role in various pathways leading on to development this condition, the current article discusses various facets of this association.

Obesity is a multifaceted subject. It has increased at an alarming rate in recent years. Being overweight increases the likelihood of a patient having associated health and social problems which may affect dental services and dental management. A review of the literature on obesity and periodontal disease suggested that they both confound each other and obesity itself has been recognized as a major risk factor for periodontal disease. It has been found that adverse effects of obesity on the periodontium may be mediated through pro-inflammatory cytokines and various other bioactive substances. This article tries to focus on the possible role of obesity and obesity-related diseases like diabetes and coronary heart diseases (CHD), as a potential contributor to periodontal disease and vice versa. The meanings of these associations can be useful for various diagnostic and treatment planning purposes.

Coronary artery disease (CAD) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with diabetes. CAD is often asymptomatic in these patients, until the onset of myocardial infarction or sudden cardiac death. Consequently, proper screening and diagnosis of CAD is crucial for the prevention and early treatment of coronary events. This review deals with selection of the sub group of patients who have type 2 diabetes, who are at high risk for developing CAD and need to be screened for the same. The various diagnostic modalities which can be used in the screening process for enhancing risk stratification and management are also discussed.

Hypoglycemia is a very common side effect of insulin therapy and, to a lesser extent, of treatment with oral hypoglycemic agents. Severe hypoglycemia can precipitate adverse cardiovascular outcomes such as myocardial ischemia and cardiac arrhythmia. These are mainly secondary to autonomic activation which results in hemodynamic changes, vasoconstriction and rise in intravascular coagulability and viscosity.

Aims: The aim was to study the effect of family history of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) on insulin sensitivity and b-cell function in normoglycemic offspring. Material and Methods: Offspring of T2DM patients (cases) and individuals without family history of T2DM (controls) were the subjects for this cross-sectional study. All participants underwent 75 g OGTT and samples were collected for plasma insulin, C-peptide, and proinsulin at 0, 30, 60, and 120 minutes. Results: A total of 271 cases (age 22 ± 10 years; 53% males) and 259 controls (28 ± 10 years, 66% males) were enrolled for the study. BMI, plasma insulin, C-peptide, proinsulin, HOMA-IR, and insulinogenic index (0-120) were significantly higher and whole-body insulin sensitivity (WBISI) and disposition index (0-120) [DI 120] were lower in cases compared to controls. After adjusting for BMI, proinsulin at 120 minutes, area under the curve (AUC) of proinsulin (during OGTT) and AUC proinsulin/AUC C-peptide were significantly higher in cases. Cases were subdivided into four groups according to inheritance pattern; paternal DM (PDM), maternal DM (MDM), grandparental DM (GPDM), and both parents DM (BPDM). The magnitude of differences varied with relationship (greater when both parents and grandparents were affected). Mean HOMA-IR was higher by 127% and 50% and DI 120 was lower by 33% and 18% (adjusted for age and gender) in the BPDM and GPDM groups respectively compared to controls. Conclusions: We observed higher BMI, plasma insulin, C-peptide, and proinsulin and lower insulin sensitivity and b-cell compensation in normoglycemic offspring of T2DM subjects compared to controls. Differences were greater when both parents and grandparents had T2DM.

Background: There is inconsistency in accepting waist circumference (WC) as mandatory and also regarding its significance for diagnosis of metabolic syndrome (MetS) for different populations. Aim: To study the association of individual parameters of MetS with WC cutoffs suitable for South Asian Indians. Materials and Methods: From an ongoing hospital-based study on MetS as per the criteria of diagnosis of modified NCEP ATP III, 713 subjects having a minimum three of the four parameters, i.e., dyslipidemia [low high density lipoprotein (HDL), high triglycerides], dysglycemia and hypertension, without regard to cutoffs of WC, were included in the present study. Results: Receiver operator characteristic curve analysis of WC cut-off points for males was 90 cm with a sensitivity and specificity of 71% and 96%, respectively, and for females was 85 cm with a sensitivity and specificity of 86% and 93%, respectively, associated with the risk factors of MetS. Multiple logistic regression analysis for low density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol concentration of ≥3.38 mmol/l showed an odds ratio of 5.03 (95% CI = 1.29-19.5) in males and 3.17 (95% CI = 1.14-8.76) in females which was statistically significant (P < 0.02); in addition to higher WC, higher level of triglyceride (P ≤ 0.0001) and lower level of high density lipoprotein cholesterol (P ≤ 0.02) were observed. Conclusion: This study suggests that WC of 90 cm in males and 85 cm in females should be a mandatory criterion of MetS in our subset of population. LDL may be considered one of the components of MetS along with the currently defined WC cutoffs.

Background: The clustering of cardiovascular risk factors is termed the metabolic syndrome (MS), which strongly predicts the risk of diabetes and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Adipokines may contribute to the development of obesity and insulin resistance and may be a causal link between MS, diabetes and CVD. Hence, we studied the adipokines - adiponectin and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) - in subjects with MS. Materials and Methods: We studied 50 subjects with MS diagnosed by International Diabetes Federation (IDF) criteria and 24 healthy age- and sex-matched controls. Clinical evaluation included anthropometry, body fat analysis by bioimpedance, highly sensitive C-reactive protein, insulin, adiponectin, and PAI-1 measurement. Results: Subjects with MS had lower adiponectin (4.01 ± 2.24 vs. 8.7 ± 1.77 μg/ml; P < 0.0001) and higher PAI-1 (53.85 ± 16.45 vs. 17.35 ± 4.45 ng/ml; P < 0.0001) levels than controls. Both were related with the number of metabolic abnormalities. Adiponectin was negatively and PAI-1 was positively associated with body mass index, waist hip ratio (WHR), body fat mass, percent body fat, and all the parameters of MS, except HDL where the pattern reversed. WHR and triglycerides were independent predictors of adipokines in multiple regression analysis. Receiver operating characteristic curve analysis showed that adiponectin (6.7 μg/ml) and PAI-1 (25.0 ng/ml) levels predicted the MS with high sensitivity, specificity and accuracy in Indian population. Conclusions: Subjects with MS have lower adiponectin and higher PAI-1 levels compared to healthy controls. Lifestyle measures have been shown to improve the various components of MS, and hence there is an urgent need for public health measures to prevent the ongoing epidemic of diabetes and CVD.

Objective: To study the effect of lifestyle intervention in the presence of multivitamin-zinc supplementation in improving the cardiometabolic status of overweight children. Materials and Methods: Data were evaluated in 74 overweight children (11.3 ± 2.9 years) randomly assigned to three groups of intervention for 4 months as follows: group A: diet-exercise counseling with multivitamin-zinc supplementation; group B: diet-exercise counseling; and group C: placebo. Anthropometric, biochemical, carotid arterial and lifestyle parameters were assessed. Results: Lifestyle counseling resulted in significant reduction in inactivity, energy and fat intakes and increase in micronutrient density of diets and physical activity in groups A and B in comparison to group C. Percent decline in body fat was more in group A than in groups B and C. Percent change in triglycerides (−13.7%) was significantly higher in group A than in groups B (−5.9%) and C (5.7%). Pulse wave velocity and elasticity modulus reduced and arterial compliance improved significantly in group A than in group B. Conclusion: Multivitamin-zinc supplementation with lifestyle intervention has a positive effect of on the cardiometabolic status of overweight children.

Art through the ages has been a marker of societal trends and fashion. Obesity is proscribed by physicians and almost reviled by today's society. While Venus (Aphrodite) continues to be the role model for those to aspire to free themselves from the clutches of obesity, Paleolithic humans had a different view of the perfect female form. Whether the Venus of Willendorf was a fashion symbol will be never answered, but the fact is that she remains testimony to the fact that obesity has been with us for several millennia.

Familial partial lipodystrophy (FPLD), Dunnigan variety, is an autosomal dominant disorder caused due to missense mutations in the lamin A/C (LMNA) gene encoding nuclear lamina proteins. Patients with FPLD are predisposed to metabolic complications of insulin resistance such as diabetes. We sought to evaluate and compare body fat distribution with dual-emission X-ray absorptiometry in women with and without FPLD and identify densitometric, clinical and metabolic features.

Hypoglycemia is a common complication of treatment of diabetes mellitus. The potential neurological complications of hypoglycemia as seizures and coma are well-recognized entities. A hypoglycemic episode is a risk factor for a patient with diabetes to have cardiovascular complications. Myocardial ischemia and infarction are known to occur in the setting of hypoglycemia. In view of the potential association of the two, the diabetic patients should undergo a routine ECG in such circumstances.

Hypertriglyceridemia is a rare, but well-known cause of acute pancreatitis. A serum triglyceride level of more than 1000 to 2000 mg / dl is the identifiable risk factor. It typically presents as an episode of acute pancreatitis or recurrent acute pancreatitis. The clinical course and routine management of Hypertriglyceridemia-induced pancreatitis is similar to other causes. A thorough family history is important, as is the identification of secondary causes of hypertriglyceridemia. The mainstay of therapy includes dietary restriction of fatty meal and fibric acid derivatives. We hereby report the case of a 37-year-old lady with a family history of dyslipidemia presenting with recurrent episodes of acute pancreatitis. We also review the literature for pathogenesis and management of hyperlipidemia.