Male reproduction is governed by the classical hypothalamo-hypophyseal testicular axis: Hypothalamic gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), pituitary luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and the gonadal steroid, principally, testosterone. Thyroid hormones have been shown to exert a modulatory influence on this axis and consequently the sexual and spermatogenic function of man. This review will examine the modulatory influence of thyroid hormones on male reproduction.

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Background: The burden of diabetes and its foot complications is increasing in India. Prevention of these complications through foot care education should be explored. The objective of our study was to assess the risk factors of poor diabetic foot care and to find the effectiveness of health education in improving foot care practice among diabetes patients. Materials and Methods: A structured pre-tested questionnaire was administered to the outpatients of a rural health center with type 2 diabetes. Awareness regarding diabetes, care of diabetes and foot care practice ware assessed and scored. Individual and group health education focusing on foot care was performed. Foot care practice was reassessed after 2 weeks of education. Results: Only 54% were aware that diabetes could lead to reduced foot sensation and foot ulcers. Nearly 53% and 41% of the patients had good diabetes awareness and good diabetes care respectively. Only 22% of the patients had their feet examined by a health worker or doctor. The patients with poor, satisfactory and good practice scores were 44.7%, 35.9% and 19.4% respectively. Low education status, old age and low awareness regarding diabetes were the risk factors for poor practice of foot care. Average score for practice of foot care improved from 5.90 ± 1.82 to 8.0 ± 1.30 after 2 weeks of health education. Practice related to toe space examination, foot inspection and foot wear inspection improved maximally. Conclusion: Foot care education for diabetics in a primary care setting improves their foot care practice and is likely to be effective in reducing the burden of diabetic foot ulcer.

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Background: Fasting (Sawm) during Ramadan, one of the five pillars of Islam is obligatory for all healthy adult and adolescent Muslims from the age of 12 years. Some children with diabetes, despite their exemption insist on fasting in Ramadan. We evaluated the safety of fasting among children with type 1 diabetes. Materials and Mathods: A prospective observational study was designed for diabetic children and adolescents who wish to fast during Ramadan 2012. Patients with their caregivers were given intensive education and instructions were provided by diabetic educators, dieticians and physicians on insulin adjustment, home blood glucose monitoring and dietary adjustments prior to Ramadan. Results: A total of 33 children and adolescents were included in this study. Of these, 16 were male and 17 were female. Majority (60.6%) of the patients could complete their fasting during the Ramadan. Patients were divided into two groups, those who completed fasting were considered as Group-I, whereas patients who broke the fast were in Group-ll. Blood glucose, hemoglobin A1c weight, and insulin dose before and after Ramadan in two groups showed no significant difference. Conclusion: Children older than 11 years of age with type 1 diabetes mellitus with conventional twice-a-day regimen can fast safely during Ramadan provided they have proper education and intensive follow-up during Ramadan.

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Introduction: Dyslipidemia is a primary, widely established as an independent major risk factor for coronary artery disease (CAD). Asians differs in prevalence of various lipid abnormalities than non-Asians. Hence, this study was conducted with objective to evaluate the lipid abnormalities and there correlation with traditional and non-traditional risk factors in known subjects with CAD. Materials and Methods: We studied the pattern and association of dyslipidemia with cardiovascular risk factors in 300 (Male: 216; Female: 84, age: 60.9 ± 12.4 years, range: 25-92 years) angiographically proved CAD patients. All patients were evaluated for anthropometry and cardiovascular risk factors and blood samples were collected for biochemical and inflammatory markers. Results: Hypercholesterolemia, hypertriglyceridemia and low high density lipoprotein (HDL) was present in 23.3%, 63.0% and 54.6% in the total study population respectively. A total of 41.3% had atherogenic dyslipidemia (raised triglycerides [TG] and low HDL). Percentage of patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus and hypertension were higher in subjects with atherogenic dyslipidemia. Insulin sensitivity was low; insulin and insulin resistance (IR) along with inflammatory markers were high in subjects with atherogenic dyslipidemia. Patients with atherogenic dyslipidemia had significantly lower serum vitamin B12 levels and higher homocysteine (Hcy) levels. Hypertriglyceridemia was positively correlated with insulin, homeostasis model assessment of IR, Hcy, interleukin-6, Tumor necrosis factor-alpha, highly sensitive C-reactive protein and negatively with vitamin B12 and quantitative insulin check index and an opposite correlation of all quoted parameters was observed with low HDL. The correlation of traditional and non-traditional risk factors was stronger with low HDL and high TG compared with hypercholesterolemia. Conclusions: Hypertriglyceridemia and low HDL cholesterol is common in patients with CAD compared with hypercholesterolemia. This suggests that different preventive strategy is required in Indian patients with CAD.

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As the developed and developing nations cope up with increasing predisposition to cardiovascular diseases (CVD) by adopting lifestyle changes the burden of coronary artery disease continues to rise globally. The presence of modifiable risk factors, which account for more than 90% of the cardiovascular (CV) risk, cannot always be interpreted as the presence of atherosclerotic heart disease and absence of modifiable risk factors do not guarantee absence of atherosclerotic changes in the arterial tree. Increasing awareness about primordial prevention and primary prevention of CVD is of vital importance in such scenarios. Ultrasonographic measurement of intima media thickness has been reported as a procedure to detect the early stages of atherosclerosis. Carotid intima media thickness (CIMT) testing is a safe, noninvasive and cost effective method to detect early atherosclerotic vascular diseases. This method of CV risk evaluation drew attention worldwide and of Indian physicians because of its feasibility in Indian population. Hence, detection and management of atherosclerosis in asymptomatic individuals will go a long way in preventing atherosclerotic diseases and prolonging survival and improving quality of life.

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Background: There is little published literature on the profile of patients with Cushing's syndrome (CS) from India. The aim of this study was to compile data of CS patients treated at this hospital. Materials and Methods: Patients referred to the endocrine services of this hospital for diagnosis/treatment of CS from January 1985 to July 2012 were the subjects for this study. All patients had detailed medical history, physical examination and biochemical and hormonal assays (which changed with availability of tests and changing views). Assays for plasma adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (late 90s), salivary cortisol estimation, IJV sampling for ACTH and corticotrophin releasing hormone stimulation tests were added on later. Imaging included computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (since the late 80's) and ⁶⁸ Ga DOTA-TOC/FDG PET-CT (2008). Results: Three hundred sixty-four patients (250 females, 114 males, age 6 months to 65 years, mean 28 years + 12 years) were diagnosed to have CS during this period. Two hundred and ninety-three patients (80.5%) were ACTH dependent (CD 215, ectopic ACTH syndrome 22, occult ACTH source 56) while 71 (19.5%) were ACTH independent (adrenal carcinoma 36, adenoma 30, primary pigmented nodular adrenal disease 4, AIMAH 1). Pituitary macro adenoma was seen in 14% of the CD cases. The most common presenting complaints were hypertension and diabetes mellitus. A total of 63% patients complained of weight gain while 15% had lost weight. Myopathy, infections, skeletal fractures and psychiatric problems were the other common observations in our patients. Conclusion: The clinical spectrum was broad. CD was the most common cause for CS.

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Background: India currently is posed by the double threat of thinness and overweight/obesity among children. Different growth charts have taken different population and give different cut-off points to assess these conditions. Objective: The objective of this study is to assess the anthropometry of school children, 5-18 years of age and thereby estimate the prevalence of childhood thinness, overweight and obesity. To analyze how the study population compares with that of Agarwal's growth chart. Materials and Methods: The anthropometric measurements of all the students who were studying from 1 ^st to 12 ^th standards were taken from 27 randomly selected Government and private schools. Prevalence of thinness, overweight and obesity were assessed using two standards - Indian standard given by Agarwal and International Standards given by International Obesity Task Force (IOTF). Results: The prevalence of thinness, overweight and obesity among 18,001 students enrolled as per Indian standard were 12.2%, 9.5% and 3% and as per International standard were 15.3%, 8.1% and 2.6% respectively. The mean and the 95 ^th percentile values of body mass index for both boys and girls at all ages in this study are falling short of Agarwal's and IOTF values. Using international cut-offs as well as Indian cut-offs given by Agarwal, underestimate the prevalence of obesity among boys and girls of all age groups. Conclusion: This study shows that under and over-nutrition among school children is in almost equal proportions. There is an underestimation of obesity among children whenever an Indian or an International growth chart is used. Thus, this study brings out the need for a really representative growth chart.

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Objective: To explore association of adiposity and physical activity with arterial stiffness and to propose optimal waist circumference cutoffs, corresponding to 90 ^th percentile of NHANES (National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey) for Indian children and adolescents. Materials and Methods: Data on weight, height, waist circumference, physical activity and right Carotid artery Intima-Media-Thickness (CIMT), pulse wave velocity (PWV), elasticity modulus (Ep), stiffness index(β), arterial compliance (AC) were assessed in 250 children (72 normal-weight and 178 overweight/obese) aged 6-17 years from Pune city, India. Body composition was measured using Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry. Results: Total, 37.1% normal-weight and 98.2% overweight/obese children had high adiposity (>95 ^th body fat percentile). Positive association of PWV and Ep (r = 0.5) also β(r = 0.25) with BMI (Body Mass Index), waist circumference and body fat (P < 0.05) was observed. Physical activity was inversely associated with PWV (r =-0.2), β(r =-0.13), Ep (r =-0.12) and positively with AC (r = 0.12) (P < 0.05). PWV significantly increased with increasing body fat for each tertile of physical activity (P < 0.05). Regression analysis revealed waist circumference, BMI, body fat and physical activity as independent associates for PWV after adjusting for age (P < 0.05). The cutoff of waist circumference yielding sensitivity and specificity for predicting the risk of high PWV was (−0.43, −0.44) for boys and girls with sensitivity in boys (girls) of 78% (87%) and specificity in boys (girls) 51% (70%). The observed cutoffs are less than the NHANES-III cutoff values of waist circumference for 90 ^th percentiles according to age and sex. Conclusion: High adiposity and low physical activity are adversely related to arterial stiffness in Indian children.

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Introduction: Bone disease and short stature are frequent clinical features of patients with beta-thalassaemia major. Dysfunction of the GH-IGF-1 axis has been described in many thalassemics children and adolescents with short stature and reduced growth velocity. Assessment of the GH-IGF-1 axis in short adults with TM after attainment of final height may be required to select those who are candidates for replacement therapy and to prevent the development of bone disease. The aim of our study was to investigate GH secretion in adult thalassemic patients in relation to their bone mineral density (BMD) and serum ferritin concentrations. Materials and Methods: We performed clonidine stimulation test in 30 thalassemic patients (18 males, 12 females) with a mean age of 31.5± 7.2 years. The cut-off level for GH response was set at 7ug/l, according to the literature. Serum ferritin, IGF-I, liver enzymes, alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and type 1 Collagen Carboxy Telopeptide (CCT1) were also determined. Results: We diagnosed GH deficiency (GHD) in 12 patients (40%) and IGF-I deficiency (IGF-I SDS <-2) was diagnosed in 20 patients (67%). Adult patients with TM had significantly decreased IGF-I concentrations and bone mineral density (BMD) at the femur neck and lumbar spine compared to normal controls. Thalassemic patients with GHD and IGF-I deficiency had significantly lower BMD T score at the lumbar spine compared to patients with normal GH and IGF-I levels. Thalassemic patients had higher serum CCT1 concentrations compared to normal controls. Peak GH levels were correlated significantly with IGF- I concentrations and IGF-I levels were correlated significantly with the height SDS (HtSDS) of thalassemic patients. Neither GH peak nor IGF-I concentrations were correlated to serum ferritin concentrations. Conclusions: We conclude that GH status should be tested in adult thalassemic patients especially those with short stature and/or decreased BMD. Clonidine test appears to be effective and safe in adults with TM. If the diagnosis of adult GHD is established, GH treatment may be considered for possible improvement of bone mineral density and heart function in patients with TM.

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Background: Superficial fungal foot infection (SFFI) in diabetic patients increases the risk of developing diabetic foot syndrome. Sixteen percent of urban population is suffering from diabetes in Sri Lanka. As the diabetes patients are more prone to get fungal foot infections, early intervention is advisable owing to the progressive nature of the infection. There is no data on the prevalence of SFFIs in diabetic patients in Sri Lanka. Objective: To determine the etiological agents causing SFFI in patients with type 2 diabetes. Materials and Methods : Three hundred eighty five diabetic patients were included. Nail clippings and swabs were collected from the infected sites using the standard protocol. Laboratory identification was done and pathogens were identified to the species level by morpho physiological methods. Results: Clinically 295 patients showed SFFI, of which 255 (86%) were mycologically confirmed for infection. Out of 236 direct microscopy (KOH) positives, 227 (96%) were culture positive. Two hundred and fifty one patients (98%) with SFFI had diabetes for more than 10 years. Of the patients with SFFIs 92% had >100 mg/dl FBS and 81% had >140 mg/dl PPBS levels and 80% had both elevated FBS and PPBS. Non-dermatophyte fungal species were the commonest pathogens followed by yeast and dermatophytes. Conclusion: Aspergillus niger was the commonest pathogen followed by Candida albicans. SFFIs were seen significantly with the increasing age, gender, duration of diabetes and with less controlled glycaemic level.

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Background: The risk for diabetic nephropathy in type 2 diabetes is about 30-40%, and it is considered the leading cause of end-stage renal disease. Small dense low-density lipoprotein (sdLDL) particles are believed to be atherogenic, and its predominance has been accepted as an emerging cardiovascular risk factor. This study aimed to assess small dense LDL as a potential risk factor and a possible predictor for diabetic nephropathy in type 2 diabetic patients. Patients and Methods: According to microalbuminuria test, 40 diabetic patients were categorized into two groups: Diabetic patients without nephropathy (microalbuminuria negative group) and diabetic patients with nephropathy (microalbuminuria positive group), each group consists of 20 patients and all were non-obese and normotensive. The patients were re-classified into three sub-groups depending on the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). Results: The mean of small dense LDL level in the microalbuminuria positive group was higher than that in the microalbuminuria negative group, but without statistical significance. It was significantly higher in patients with either mild or moderate decrease in estimated GFR than in patients with normal estimated GFR. There was statistically significant correlation between small dense LDL and albuminuria and significant inverse correlation between small dense LDL and estimated GFR in all patients in the study. Based on microalbuminuria, the sensitivity and specificity of small dense LDL in the diagnosis of diabetic nephropathy was 40% and 80%, respectively, with cutoff values of small dense LDL >55.14 mg/dl. On the other hand, based on GFR, the sensitivity and specificity were 88.24% and 73.91% respectively, with cutoff values of small dense LDL >41.89 mg/dl. Conclusion: Small dense LDL is correlated with the incidence and severity of diabetic nephropathy in type 2 diabetic patients. It should be considered as a potential risk factor and as a diagnostic biomarker to be used in conjunction with other biochemical markers for early diagnosis, assessment, and follow-up of diabetic nephropathy.

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Context: Congenital hypothyroidism (CH), the most common etiology of preventable mental retardation in children, is estimated to be more prevalent among Asian population. Aims: Since thyroid function tests (TFTs) varied among different ages and geographical regions, in this study, the neonatal thyroid reference intervals in a healthy neonatal population is determined for the first time in Iran. Settings and Design: A cross-sectional study performed on 246 healthy term newborns aged between 2 days and 1 month. Materials and Methods: Blood samples were obtained by venipuncture from all subjects. The median, 2.5 ^th , 5 ^th , 95 ^th , and 97.5 ^th percentile of serum thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), as well as the total and free T4 were assessed among different age groups. Statistical Analysis Used: Predictive Analytics Software (PASW Statistics 18) was used for the analysis. Results: Serum TSH, total and free T4 concentration peaked in 5 ^th to 7 ^th days of life, continued over 2 weeks, then decreased and started reaching to adult reference range. A significant negative correlation between age and serum concentration of TSH (P = 0.02), total T4 (P = 0.01) and free T4 (P = 0.01) was found. Conclusion: This study yielded fairly different values for TFTs compared compared values found in other countries and also different from values reported for laboratory kits we used. These differences were assumed to be due to variations in ethnicity, age, and laboratory methods used. Due to the lack of international standardization, conducting multicenter studies helps in making a more precise evaluation of thyroid status in neonates.

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Purpose: The purpose of this study is to investigate the association of the serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D (25-OHD) level with markers of insulin resistance (IR) in postmenopausal Indian women. Materials and Methods: This was a cross-sectional study, conducted at a Tertiary Care Hospital in New Delhi, India. Seventy one postmenopausal women (mean age 56.3 ± 7.6 years) were enrolled. Exclusion criteria were known or newly detected diabetics, subjects with chronic renal failure, chronic liver disease or any other chronic inflammatory condition, chronic smokers and chronic alcoholics. Serum calcium (and albumin for calculating corrected calcium), phosphorus, alkaline phosphatase and 25-OHD were measured as parameters of calcium homeostasis. Fasting blood glucose (FBG), systolic and diastolic blood pressures, body mass index (BMI), fasting serum insulin, calculated glucose insulin ratio (GIR), and homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) were studied as parameters of IR. Data was then analyzed for statistical significance. Results: The mean serum 25-OHD level was 12.73 ± 7.63 ng/ml. The mean BMI was 27.78 ± 5.37 kg/m ² . The mean calculated GIR was 13.14 ± 9.39 and HOMA-IR was 2.31 ± 1.70. Serum 25-OHD was inversely correlated with BMI (correlation coefficient −0.234, P value 0.050) and with HOMA-IR (correlation coefficient −0.237, P value 0.047). However, when 25-OHD was adjusted for BMI the correlation between 25-OHD and HOMA-IR lost its significance. No correlation was found between serum 25-OHD and any other parameters of IR studied. Conclusions: There is a significant negative linear correlation between 25-OHD and BMI. The significant negative linear correlation between 25-OHD and HOMA-IR was confounded by BMI. There is no correlation between 25-OHD and parameters of IR.

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The endocrine and metabolic diseases of childhood obesity, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, iodine deficiency disorders, vitamin D deficiency, and osteoporosis are major public health problems. Different programs including National Program for Prevention and Control of Cancer, Diabetes, Cardiovascular Diseases, and Stroke address these problems although some are yet to be addressed. National surveys have shown high prevalence of these disorders and their risk factors. Most of the programs aim at awareness raising, lifestyle modification, (primary prevention) and screening (secondary prevention) for the disease conditions as these are proven to be cost-effective compared to late diagnosis and treatment of various complications. Urgent concerted full scale implementation of these programs with good coordination under the umbrella of National Rural Health Mission is the need of the moment. The referral system needs strengthening as are the secondary and tertiary levels of health care. Due attention is to be given for implementation of these programs in the urban areas, as the prevalence of these conditions is almost equal or even higher among urban poor people where primary and secondary prevention measures are scarcely available and treatment costs are sky-high.

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Context: GLP-1 receptor agonists (GLP-1 RA) are unique antidiabetic agents that have the ability to lower blood glucose without causing hypoglycemia, while at the same time promoting weight loss. Information on the efficacy and safety of GLP-1 RA in the Indian diabetic population is limited. Aims: (1) To evaluate the effect of GLP-1 RA, Liraglutide on glycemic control, and weight in obese Indian patients with type 2 diabetes. (2) To study the adverse event profile of Liraglutide in these patients in real-world clinical setting. Settings and Design: Observational study conducted in a tertiary care hospital. Materials and Methods: Liraglutide was prescribed to 196 obese patients with type 2 diabetes who had poor glycemic control on oral medications ± insulin. The initial dose of Liraglutide was 0.6 mg, which was up-titrated to 1.2 mg after 1 week; further up-titration to 1.8 mg was done based on tolerance. Dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV) inhibitors were discontinued and dose of other medications adjusted according to clinical judgment during the study period. Results: Mean age of patients was 49.9 ± 9.6 years. Three month data were available for 175 patients out of a total of 196. At 3 months, glycosylated hemoglobin (HbA1c) was 7.6 ± 0.9% vs. 9.2 ± 1.9% at baseline (P = 0.007) and mean body weight was 96.0 ± 16.5 kg vs. 100.1 ± 17.5 kg at baseline (P < 0.001). Most common adverse events were nausea, burping, and eructation (10%). Conclusion: Liraglutide significantly improves glycemic control with low risk of hypoglycemia and is associated with significant weight loss in obese Indian patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus.

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Background: A large proportion of patients worldwide under treatment for hypothyroidism with thyroxine show suboptimal Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) values. There is a paucity of Indian data on 'out-of-range' TSH values in patients with primary hypothyroidism receiving levothyroxine treatment. Aim: To assess the percentage of primary hypothyroid patients with abnormal thyroid function despite being prescribed levothyroxine for at least 2 m. Materials and Methods: A cross-sectional, single visit, observational study in adult patients with primary hypothyroidism on treatment with levothyroxine for at least 2m was undertaken across 10 cities in India. Compliance to thyroxine therapy was assessed by interviewing the subjects and their quality of life was assessed by administering the SF-36 questionnaire. A random blood sample (5ml) was drawn from the study subjects during the same visit for assessing serum TSH levels. TSH levels were correlated with the current dose of levothyroxine. Results: A total of 1950 subjects (mean age 41.4 ± 11.17 years; female 81.2%, male 18.8%) with primary hypothyroidism were enrolled in the study. Of the 1925 subjects in whom TSH values were available, 808 (41.97%) were under-treated (TSH > 4 mIU/L) and 243 (12.62%) were over-treated (TSH < 0.4mIU/L). The mean dose of thyroxine in this study was 1.23 μg/kg/day (±0.85). Majority of subjects (90.79%) were compliant/moderately compliant to thyroxine therapy. Age and autoimmune hypothyroidism were the factors that had significant impact on serum TSH. Subjects with abnormal TSH had significantly lower scores for role limitation due to emotional problems (P = 0.0278) and due to physical health (P = 0.0763). Conclusion: This study concluded that around half (54%) of known hypothyroid subjects had out-of-range serum TSH despite being treated with levothyroxine for at least 2m. The mean daily dose of thyroxine (1.23 μg/kg ± 0.85) was less than the recommended full replacement dose.

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Hashimoto's encephalopathy (HE) is a rare steroid-responsive encephalopathy syndrome, which can have highly variable neuropsychiatric manifestations and can go unrecognized for a long time. HE is a diagnosis of exclusion and should be kept in mind when evaluating a patient with a cognitive dysfunction and high titers of anti-thyroid antibodies as it responds dramatically to steroids. Steroid responsive myoclonus can be a presentation of HE.

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Pioglitazone improves glycemic control by acting as an insulin sensitizer and is used in the management of Type 2 diabetes mellitus. Pioglitazone has recently been at the center of a controversy with regards to its safety. There is no clear consensus on how, when and in what dose the drug should be used in the management of diabetes. We have summarized our strategy on pioglitazone use in Type 2 diabetes in a large private tertiary care center - Medanta, the Medicity- which may help in generating further thought about positioning of this anti-diabetic molecule. We use pioglitazone as the fourth in the pecking order of oral anti-diabetic agents. We typically use pioglitazone in a dose of 15 mg/day. We avoid using pioglitazone with insulin. We do not use pioglitazone under following situations: In the presence of significant or proven cardiac disease, in patients who are struggling with their weight or need to lose weight, in patients at high risk for osteoporotic fractures, in patients with macular edema, in patients with pre-existing bladder cancer and would discontinue in case hematuria or any other symptom of bladder cancer develops. We continue to use the drug in patients well controlled on it without any evident side-effects or contraindications.

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